Around the age of 6 children come to realise that gender is consistent across situations: e. Once the ability to conserve develops children realise that despite changes in appearance gender is consistent. Although influential, Kohlberg's theory tends to be descriptive rather than explanatory. However, the theory fails to explain why gender schemas change with age.
Martin argues that the basic gender identity acquired at the gender labelling stage aged 2 is sufficient for an infant to take an interest in and begin identifying with their gender. GST argues that children gain their gender identity between the ages of 2 and 3 when they work out that they are a boy or a girl. At this stage, their gender schema is extremely simple, consisting of two groups — boys and girls.
A schema is a mental map of understanding or set of ideas about the world. Own sex is considered the in-group, opposite sex is considered the out-group. Out-groups will be negatively evaluated. This identification leads infants to emulate in-group behaviors and avoid out-group behaviors.
Infants will actively seek out information about what their in-group does: i. After passing through the oral and anal psychosexual stages of development, Freud argued that males and females experience a different complex or crisis during the phallic stage aged around 5.
If the child successfully resolves this crisis they acquire the gender behavior typical of their sex. The fear of the father is experienced as a fear of castration. This fear is repressed in to the Unconscious. Girls are initially attracted to their mothers in the same way as boys.
Awareness of the lack of a penis leads to the girl believing she has been castrated and experiencing penis envy. To resolve this crisis the girl converts her desire for a penis into a desire for a baby. The girl then identifies with identification the mother and internalises internalisation stereotypical feminine behaviors. The 5 year old Hans was phobic of horses which Freud argued was a repressed and displaced fear of his father.
Freud also claimed he expressed sexual desire towards his mother and wished his father dead, and feared castration. Case studies such as Levine 21 who claimed that of 32 manic-depressives, 22 were suffering from unresolved Oedipal or Electra crises, have problems with researcher bias and subjectivity. Post-Freudians usually argue that penis envy is symbolic: i. These theories imply that children raised in single-parent households would fail to acquire gender identity in the normal way.
Patterson 04 found that the gender identity of girls raised by lesbian mothers was very similar to those raised by heterosexual parents. Social learning theory regards gender identity and role as a set of behaviors that are learned from the environment.
The main way that gender behaviors are learned is through the process of observational learning. Children observe the people around them behaving in various ways, some of which relate to gender. Individuals that are observed are called models. Theses models provide examples of masculine and feminine behavior to observe and imitate. They pay attention to some of these people models and encode their behavior. At a later time they may imitate i. First, the child is more likely to attend to and imitate those people it perceives as similar to itself.
Consequently, it is more likely to imitate behavior modelled by people the same sex as it is. Second, the people around the child will respond to the behavior it imitates with either reinforcement or punishment.
It is likely that the child will be reinforced for acting in gender appropriate ways and punished or ignored for gender inappropriate behavior. This is known as vicarious reinforcement. Williams carried out a natural experiment in an isolated community called Notel where TV was about to be introduced for the first time. Measures of attitudes and behavior were taken before and after the introduction of TV. Two other towns were used for comparison purposes. He found that, in the two years following the introduction of TV, the children of Notel became much more stereotyped in the gender attitudes.
There was no corresponding change in the comparison towns. Children reared in one-parent or homosexual families do not have difficulties with the development of gender identity. There is no evidence that the absence of a powerful same-sex model, or non-stereotypical models for male or female behavior, affect a child's gender identity.
Children persist in behavior which they do not see modelled. The film Billy Elliott is an example of this. Billy was drawn to ballet and desperately wanted to be a ballet dancer, despite being surrounded by men who were typical of the male stereotype.
The only ballet dancers he saw were female, but he did not want to be female, he was comfortable as a male. He just wanted to dance. Much of the research done on the damaging effects of gender stereotyping has focused on the way in which these stereotypes serve to further suppress women. However, men are hurt as well. Men are told that they should never show their emotions, they are socialized to be aggressive, and they are taught to derogate anything female.
This manifests itself as a high level of competitiveness, a disability to be open and vulnerable, and a lack of competence in interpersonal relationships Kimmel, In terms of the nature nurture debate if culture does influence gender role this would suggest that gender is learnt. On the other hand, evidence that gender role behavior is consistent across cultures would suggest that gender role is inherited. In support of the nature debate, psychologist have looked at cultures and tried to show behaviors that are not influenced by gender role.
They argue that consistency across cultures shows that learning does not influence gender roles, instead our genes do. In support of this view Williams and Best explored gender stereotypes in 30 different nations involving university students as participants.
The students were given a item adjective e. They found that there was a broad consensus across countries with men being seen as more dominant and aggressive and women being seen as nurturing and deferent. This suggests there are universal gender stereotypes which seem to point to gender roles being biologically determined. Gender schemas have an impact not only on how people process information but on the attitudes and beliefs that direct "gender-appropriate" behavior.
Through these observations, children form schema related to what men and women can and cannot do. It also dictates a person's value and potential in that culture. For example, a girl raised in a traditional culture might believe that the only path available to her as a woman is to get married and raise kids.
By contrast, a girl raised in a more progressive culture might pursue a career, avoid having children, or decide not to get married. Many of these influences are overt, while others are more subtle. For instance, even the placement of gender titles in vocabulary "how men and women are meant to behave" inherently places women in a secondary position by rule. All of these influences add up to how gender schema is formed. Within this construct, men and women are tacitly aware of the consequences of not adhering to the cultural norm.
A woman who decides to pursue a career, for example, might be considered "uppity" in traditional culture or be considered "unfair" or "disrespectful" to her husband if she doesn't take his last name. On the flip side, even in more progressive societies, men may be subject to disapproval for being the stay-at-home parent, while a woman may be described as "old-fashioned" or "backward" if she adheres to a more traditional "housewife" role. When subjected to societal disapproval, people will often feel pressured to alter their behavior or face rejection by those who disapprove of them.
In her writings, Bem believed that gender schemas were limiting for men, women, and society as a whole. Raising children free from these stereotypes and limitations, she believed, would lead to greater freedom and fewer restrictions of free will. Critics of Bem's theory say that she portrayed individuals simply as passive bystanders in the development of gender schemas and ignored the complex forces that contribute to the construction of gender.
The inventory consists of 60 different words that are either masculine, feminine, or gender-neutral. When taking the test, respondents are asked to rate how strongly they identify with each characteristic. Rather than simply categorize people as masculine or feminine, the inventory presents both traits as part of a continuum. Individuals can rank high on one gender or low on another sex-typed or, alternately, rank high on both masculine and feminine traits androgynous.
The BSRI was first developed in and has since become one of the most widely used psychological assessment tools in the world. Ever wonder what your personality type means? Characteristics: Schemas are dynamic — they develop and change based on new information and experiences and thereby support the notion of plasticity in development. Schemas are described as patterns of repeated behaviour which allow children to explore and express developing ideas and thoughts through their play and exploration.
The repetitive actions of schematic play allow children to construct meaning in what they are doing. Psychologist Jeffrey Young, a leading researcher on schemas, has defined eighteen common negative schemas that develop early in life.
Provide den-building equipment, dressing-up clothes, blankets and pieces of fabric. Barrels and tunnels are good for hiding in. Schemas vary according to cultural background and other environmental factors. Once people have developed a schema about themselves, there is a strong tendency for that schema to be maintained by a bias in what they attend to, in what they remember, and in what they are prepared to accept as true about themselves.
Stereotypes are organized sets of beliefs about the characteristics of a group of people. They apply to whole groups, whereas person schemas apply to individual people. Schemas are core beliefs or stories that we have developed about ourselves and others in relationships.
0コメント